Endnotes for
Propaganda v. Public Diplomacy: How 9/11 gave New Life to a Cold War Debate

Return to Main Document

  1. David W. Guth and Charles Marsh, Public Relations: A Values-Driven Approach (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 2000), p. 55.
  2. Brett Gray, The Nervous Liberals: Propaganda Anxieties from World War I to the Cold War (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999), p. 8.
  3. New Webster's Dictionary and Roget's Thesaurus (New York: Ottenhiemer Publishers, 1992, p. 301.
  4. Paul Myron Anthony Linebarger. Psychological Warfare. (Washington: Combat Forces Press, 1954), p. 39. As quoted by William A. Levinson. "An Introduction to Propaganda." Published online: http://www.stentorian.com/propagan.html##definition
  5. Garth S. Jowett and Victoria O'Donnell. Propaganda and Persuasion, 3 ed. (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1999), p. 2.
  6. Gayle Mertz and Carol Miller Lieber. Conflict in Context: Understanding Local to Global Security. (Educators for Social Responsibility, 1991) Excerpted online at http://www.esrnational.org/whatispropaganda.htm
  7. Noam Chomsky. "Propaganda, American-style." Zpub.com. Web posted at http://www.zpub.com/un/chomsky-htm
  8. Todd Hunt and James E. Grunig, Public Relations Techniques (Fort Worth, Tex.: Harcourt Brace, 1994), p. 8.
  9. Cutlip, op. cit., pp. 182-183.
  10. Cutlip, op. cit., p. 182.
  11. Gray, op. cit., p. 8.
  12. Leo Bogart. 1995. Cool Words, Cold War. The American University Press. Washington. p. xii
  13. Jowett and O'Donnell. op. cit., p. 6
  14. Jowett and O'Donnell, op. cit., p. 1.
  15. Fitzhugh, op. cit., p. 3.
  16. Guth and Marsh, op. cit., pp. 35-36.
  17. Jowell and O'Donnell. op. cit. p 12
  18. Alvin A. Snyder. U.S. Foreign Affairs in the New Information Age: Charting a Course for the 21st Century. (Annenberg Washington Program in Communications Policy Studies, Northwestern University) Published online at http://www.annenberg.nwu.edu/pubs/usfa/default.htm. Part 1, p 1.
  19. Jowell and O'Donnell. op. cit. p 13
  20. Fitzhugh, op. cit., p. 7.
  21. Jowell and O'Donnell. op. cit. p 15
  22. Scott M. Cutlip, The Unseen Power: Public Relations. A History (Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1994), pp. xiv-xv.
  23. Bruce Catton, Bruce Catton's Civil War (New York: Fairfax Press, 1984), pp. 191-192.
  24. Guth and Marsh, op. cit., pp. 66-67.
  25. David M. Kennedy, Over Here: The First World War and American Society. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980), p. 62.
  26. Barry Alan Marks. "The Idea of Propaganda in America" Ph.D. dissertation, University of Minnesota, 1957. As cited in Gray, op. cit., p. 23.
  27. Scott M. Cutlip, Allen H. Center and Glen M. Broom, Effective Public Relations, Sixth Edition (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1985), pp. 40-49.
  28. Richard Alan Nelson, A Chronology and Glossary of Propaganda in the United States. (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1996), pp. 274 (white propaganda) and 176 (gray propaganda).
  29. Ibid, p. 128.
  30. Bogart, op.cit., p. xiii
  31. Charles A.H. Thomson. 1948. Overseas Information Service of the United States Government. The Brookings Institution. Washington. p. 19. (As cited in Bogart, op. cit. p. xiii)
  32. Cutlip, Center and Broom, op. cit. p. 570.
  33. Speech by Allen M. Wilson, vice president of The Advertising Council, to a joint luncheon of the Export Advertising Association and Export Managers Club, March 23, 1949. Charles W. Jackson Files, Assistant to the President File 1948-52, Box 27, Harry S. Truman Library.
  34. "Statement by the President." August 31, 1945. Official File, Folder 37. Harry S. Truman Library.
  35. Freeland. op. cit. p. 89.
  36. Freeland. op. cit. p. 89.
  37. Bogart. op. cit. pp. xviii-xiv.
  38. Alvin A. Snyder. 1994. U.S. Foreign Affairs in the New Information Age: Charting a Course for the 21st Century. The Annenberg Washington Program in Communications Policy Studies of Northwestern University. Washington.
  39. Bogart. op. cit. p. xiv.
  40. Address by President Harry S. Truman to the American Society of Newspaper Editors, April 20, 1950, Files of Charles. Murphy, Presidential Speech File, Box Number 6, Harry S. Truman Library.
  41. Karlyn Kohrs Campbell and Kathleen Hall Jamieson. Deeds Done in Words: Presidential Rhetoric and the Genres of Governance. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), p 101.
  42. Department of State Departmental Announcement No. 4. "Establishment of the United States International Information Administration (IIA)." January 16, 1952. As published in Foreign Relations of the United States 1952-1954, Volume II, Part 2. United States Government Printing Office. Washington. 1984. p 1591.
  43. Foreign Relations of the United States 1951 Volume I. United States Government Printing Office. Washington. 1959. p. 902. Footnote 3.
  44. Ibid. p 903. Footnote 5.
  45. Martin J. Medhurst. "Eisenhower, Little Rock, and the Rhetoric of Crisis." The Modern President and Crisis Rhetoric. Amos Kiewe, ed. (Westport, Conn.:Praeger, 1994), p 22.
  46. James Reston. "Eisenhower Plans Key Staff To Guide 'Cold War' Policy." The New York Times. January 11, 1953. p 53.
  47. Scope and Content Note, Finder's Guide, U.S. Committee on International Information Activities (Jackson Committee): Records, 1950-53. Dwight D. Eisenhower Library. (In subsequent citations, documents from this file will be referred to as "Jackson Committee Records.")
  48. White House Press Release. January 26, 1953. Jackson Committee Records. Box 14. Dwight David Eisenhower Library.
  49. Eisenhower letter to James S. Lay, Jr. January 24, 1953. Jackson Committee Records, 1950-53. Box 12. Dwight David Eisenhower Library.
  50. Editorial Note. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954, Volume II, Part 2. United States Government Printing Office. Washington. 1984. p 1672.
  51. Charles E. Egan. "Propaganda Post in Cabinet Urged." The New York Times. February 21, 1953. p 1.
  52. "Psychological War." The Washington Post. February 14, 1953. Clipping from Jackson Committee Records. Box 14. op. cit.
  53. Joseph Alsop and Stewart Alsop. "'Selling' Democracy Like Soap Flakes." The Washington Post. January 12, 1953. Clipping from the files of U.S. President's Committee on International Information Activities (Jackson Committee): Records, 1950-53. Box 14. Dwight David Eisenhower Library.
  54. Walter Lippmann. "Abolish the Voice of America." The New York Herald Tribune. April 27, 1953. Clipping from Jackson Committee Records. Box 14. op. cit.
  55. "Eisenhower's 'cold war' committee to call on PR men." Tide. February 28, 1953. Clipping from Jackson Committee Records. Box 14. op. cit.
  56. Ellis L. Phillips. Memorandum of notes and impressions of Workshop Panel on U.S. International Public Relations, sponsored by the American Public Relations Association, on March 3, 1953. Jackson Committee Records. Box 13. op. cit.
  57. Public Relations News. Letter No. 464. June 1, 1953. New York. p 1.
  58. "Collection Description: The Psychological Strategy Board." Harry S. Truman Library.
  59. White House Press Release on the report of the President's Committee on International Information. op. cit.
  60. White House Press Release on the report of the President's Committee on International Information. op. cit.
  61. White House Press Release on the report of the President's Committee on International Information. op. cit.
  62. Ibid.
  63. "Mundt Sees One Unit For U.S. Information." The New York Times. February 23, 1953. Clipping from Jackson Committee Records. Box 14. op. cit.
  64. Staff Memorandum No. 8. United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations. April 10, 1953. Jackson Committee Records. Box 14. op cit.
  65. Public Relations News. Letter No. 464. June 1, 1953. New York. p 1.
  66. Ibid.
  67. Memorandum from Lewis C. Mattison to Abbott Washburn. May 27, 1953. Jackson Committee Records. Box 11. op. cit.
  68. Report to the President. op. cit. pp 101-102. Italics added for emphasis.
  69. Report to the President. op. cit. p 102.
  70. "Accompanying Report of the National Performance Review." Office of the Vice President. The White House. July 23, 1994.
  71. Statement by the Press Secretary. The White House. February 15, 1995.
  72. Fact Sheet: Foreign Affairs Reorganization. The White House. December 30, 1998.
  73. Bob Woodward. Bush at War. Simon & Schuster. New York. 2002. p 41.
  74. Ibid. p 88.
  75. Elizabeth Becker. "A Nation Challenged: Hearts and Minds." The New York Times. November 11, 2001. Section 1A, p 1.
  76. Ibid.
  77. Woodward. op. cit. pp 272-273.
  78. Woodward. op. cit. p 279.
  79. Eric Boehlert. "A failure to communicate." Salon.com. Posted November 8, 2001.
  80. Radio Address by Laura Bush to the Nation. Office of Mrs. Bush, The White House. Web posted November 17, 2001. http://www.whitehouse.gov
  81. Dana Milbank. "U.S. Takes Offensive in Information War With List of Enemy Crimes." The Washington Post. November 22, 2001. p A38.
  82. Jamie McIntyre. "U.S. propaganda to Taliban: 'You are condemned.'" CNN. Web posted October 17, 2001. http://www.cnn.com.
  83. Mike Allen. "White House Angered at Plan For Pentagon Misinformation." The Washington Post. February 25, 2002. p A17.
  84. "Pentagon closes down controversial office." CNN. Web posted February 26, 2002. http://www.cnn.com.
  85. Eric Schmitt. "White House Plays Down Propaganda by Military." The New York Times. Web posted December 17, 2002. http://www.nytimes.com
  86. Transcript. U.S. Department of Defense News Briefing with Secretary Rumsfeld and General Richard B. Meyers, chairman, Joints Chiefs of Staff. U.S. Department of Defense. December 17, 2002.
  87. Transcript. Ari Fleischer Press Briefing. The White House. July 30, 2002.
  88. "Building America's Public Diplomacy." Report issued by the United States Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy. September 18, 2002. Washington. p 6.
  89. Ibid. pp 6-7.
  90. Eagan. op cit.
  91. James Dao. "Panel Urges U.S. to Revamp Efforts to Promote Image Abroad." The New York Times. Web posted July 29, 2002. http://www.nytimes.com
  92. News Release: "Council Task Force urges the Bush Administration to upgrade pblic diplomacy." Council on Foreign Relations. Web posted July 30, 2002. http://www.cfr.org